The Pursuit Of Truth And Knowledge Essay - 2371 Words

There is a reoccurring theme in the history of the world that every civilization has contributed to: it is the endless pursuit of truth and knowledge. The pursuit has never been about reaching a destination or an end point, or about acquiring all the truth and knowledge there is to acquire. Men have learned early on that the universe it too vast to unearth all its mysteries. However, throughout this pursuit, men have also learned about the limitations of their own understandings, the setbacks of their capacity to know the world as well as they would like. This acknowledgement of man’s inability to fathom the world in its entirety is what has fueled and continues to fuel the hunt for truth. The age of Enlightenment was characterized by the abandonment of age-old dogma in favor of a new way of thinking (Greenblatt and Abrams 2182-85). The scientific method, developed by Francis Bacon, had opened up several avenues for discovery and paved the way for empiricism, a prominent aspec t of the era’s intellectual movement (Greenblatt and Abrams 2182-85). Among the greatest philosophers of the seventeenth century, John Locke is remembered as the most influential liberal philosopher to date. His contributions to political philosophy in what became known as modern day liberalism designated him as the apotheosis of Enlightenment thinkers, but his contributions extended far beyond politics. Locke ventured into the realm of epistemology, which is the subject of one of his most profoundShow MoreRelatedSocrates : An Essay On Morality, Misdeeds, And A Martyr1226 Words   |  5 Pagesfamiliarity. Socrates is one such unique name. A man of ethics and reason, Socrates would change history forever, creating a love of reason and knowledge unestablished by his predecessors. Despite the admiration and respect Socrates found in most Athenian circles, his revolutionary methods and inquisitive mind would eventually be his undoing. Socrates pursuit of the truth directly confl icted with the ideas of moral and social conformity, ultimately leading to his conviction under the very laws he deemed fairRead MoreMary Shelley s Frankenstein And The Modern Prometheus1291 Words   |  6 Pageskills many of those close to Frankenstein, including William his youngest brother, Henry Carvel his best friend, and Elizabeth his wife. This story of passion and the pursuit of knowledge exemplifies how with determination, passion can drive us to find the truth, but with the truth Frankenstein and Walton seek, comes the danger of knowledge. Victor Frankenstein created his creature with passion, the strong emotion to discover the mysteries of life. His drive was clouded by curiosity and desire for theRead MoreThe Republic Of Plato s Republic893 Words   |  4 PagesPlato’s Republic Plato aims to show from book 1 that justice has intrinsic value to itself, that it gives one a more satisfying pursuit of life. In book I, he retorts Thrasymachus account that justice is the advantage of the stronger. Initially this makes sense that if justice were defined by state law, then the entirety of nations, differing in laws, would be unified by the principle of rule by force, in which the strong create the law. They would do so to suit their own specific needsRead MoreScience Is The Pursuit Of Value And Meaning Essay1637 Words   |  7 PagesScience and religion have a complicated relationship in modern society. In this paper, I argue that science and religion are non-overlapping; science is the pursuit of truth in the natural world, and religion is the pursuit of value and meaning. This position is based largely on Stephen Jay Gould’s NOMA, and it seeks to address weak areas of his argument. In order to properly defend this position, I will define science and religion, establish that they’re exclusive to their domains, present an argumentRead MoreAn Exploration Of Knowledge And Its Impact On Our Decision Making Of Course1494 Words   |  6 Pagesour responsibility to discern what information and by extension knowledge we not only retain, but develop. What assists us in this independent endeavour is our personal perception and understanding of the views we encounter, as well as the society’s we dwell in - that is if we allow the latter to affect our decision-making of course. The quotation above goes on to provide one of many motivating factors in a knowers’ pursuit of knowledge - his or her perspective. As the perspective is that which isRead MoreEssay on Nietzsche1672 Words   |  7 PagesAn Analysis of Nietzsche’s On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense Friedrich Nietzsche’s On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense represents a deconstruction of the modern epistemological project. Instead of seeking for truth, he suggests that the ultimate truth is that we have to live without such truth, and without a sense of longing for that truth. This revolutionary work of his is divided into two main sections. The first part deals with the question on what is truth? Here he discusses the implicationRead MoreEssay on The Nature of Socratic Philosophy516 Words   |  3 Pagesanswers to the questions he raised, his views and methods of philosophy are the cornerstone of what philosophy is today. The nature of philosophy, as viewed by Socrates, is centred around the wellness of the soul, virtue being defined as knowledge and the pursuit of truth through the questioning of beliefs. Socrates heavily subscribed to a dualistic view of the body and the soul.He saw the body, or the flesh as something engaging in vacant pleasures and of no value to the betterment of an individualRead MoreResearch And Christianity : A Biblical Perspective1478 Words   |  6 Pagesthe last several weeks, this course has supplied me with a deeper knowledge of how, when, and why research is applied in behavioral studies. The answers to these questions have also provoked me to examine how Christianity and behavioral research can support one another. Specifically, the integration of research and Christianity has led me to believe that every method, type, and step to research leads one closer to the truth, truth that effectuates positive changes to mankind while encouraging aRead MoreOedipus The King Analysis896 Words   |  4 PagesOedipus the King, Sophocles uses his protagonist, Oedipus, to explore his pursuit of knowledge, which leads to his tragic destruction. Oedipus is a favorable king who is determined to end the curse that has been brought upon the city because the murderer of his predecessor, Laius, still lies in the city. Ironically, Oedipus delivers the curse to the city because he murdered his father, Laius. Oedipus’s desire to gain knowledge and bring the murderer of Laius to justice, results in his downfall, whichRead MoreWhat Is Truth - Comparison of Plato and Peirces Philosophy Essay examples994 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Truth? For thousands of years, mankind has persistently pursued truth, knowledge, and understanding. For most, this pursuit is a driving force which usually doesnt end until one finds a truth that is satisfying to him or her. Even then, however, one may choose to look for an alternate truth that may be even more satisfying to them. This pursuit does not always follow the same path for everyone as there are different ideas as to how truth is actually obtained and which is the best way

Young Goodman Brown Symbolism Essay - 1388 Words

Young Goodman Brown (â€Å"There may be a devilish Indian behind every tree, said Goodman Brown to himself;...†) It would be one of the many things you would see in the forest with the devil, it being one of many demons that afflict us. The symbolism in this tale of woe is rampant with biblical references, and as a servant of the devil you will want to know why this relates to this tale of those reaching the promised land of wanton sin. The devil, your master, makes his appearance throughout the novel, as a man â€Å"...about fifty years old, apparently in the same rank of life as Goodman Brown, and bearing a considerable resemblance to him, though perhaps more in expression than features.† , but revealing his nature through the knowledge of†¦show more content†¦The evidence lie in the aforementioned quotes. The power he wields over his choir(Welcome, my children, said the dark figure, to the communion of your race! Ye have found, thus young, your nature and your destiny. My children, look behind you! They turned; and flashing forth, as it were, in a sheet of flame, the fiend-worshippers were seen; the smile of welcome gleamed darkly on every visage. There, resumed the sable form, are all whom ye have reverenced from youth. Ye deemed them holier than yourselves, and shrank from your own sin, contrasting it with their lives of righteousness, and prayerful aspirations heavenward. Yet, here are they all, in my worshipping assembly! This night it shall be granted you to know their secret deeds; how hoary-bearded elders of the church have whispered wanton words to the young maids of their households; how many a woman, eager for widows weeds, has given her husband a drink at bed-time, and let him sleep his last sleep in her bosom; how beardless youth have made haste to inherit their fathers wealth; and how fair damsels--blush not, sweet ones--have dug little graves in the garden, and bidden me, the sole guest, to an infants funeral. By the sympathy of your human hearts for sin, ye shall scent out all the places--whether in church, bed-chamber, street, field, orShow MoreRelated The Symbolism of Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay2725 W ords   |  11 PagesThe Symbolism of â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story, â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† shows the reader the author’s power as a symbolist.    Frederick C. Crews in â€Å"The Logic of Compulsion in ‘Roger Malvin’s Burial’† explores the symbology that prevails in Hawthorne’s best short stories:    . . . I chose this one tale to analyze because it illustrates the indispensability, and I should even say the priority, of understanding the literal psychological dramasRead More Symbolism in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay2380 Words   |  10 PagesSymbolism in Young Goodman Brown  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚      Edmund Fuller and B. Jo Kinnick in â€Å"Stories Derived from New England Living† state: â€Å"Hawthorne’s unique gift was for the creation of strongly symbolic stories which touch the deepest roots of man’s moral nature† (31). It is the purpose of this essay to explore the main symbolism contained within Nathaniel Hawthorne’s tale, â€Å"Young Goodman Brown.†    Stanley T. Williams in â€Å"Hawthorne’s Puritan Mind† states that the author was forever â€Å"perfectingRead MoreYoung Goodman Brown Symbolism Essay1147 Words   |  5 Pages Newlywed Goodman Brown, plans to kiss his wife, Faith, goodbye, and journey into the woods one evening, to satisfy his curiosity. As he heads off with strong faith, he looks back, and is concerned whether Faith knows of his real plans. Goodman is a young man of Salem, Massachusetts who comes from a long line of Puritans. He is a devout Christian and frightened of becoming a sinner. Although Goodman’s journey may only be a dream, his trip into the woods is life altering. He ultimately comesRead MoreYoung Goodman Brown Essay(Symbolism)1543 Words   |  7 PagesIBEnglish III 13 September 2011 â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† Analysis One of the factors that shaped the New World was religion; it was a pillar in the fledgling society and a reason for migration for so many Europeans. Puritanism was a major belief system that held strongly throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Nathaniel Hawthorne, a nineteenth century American novelist and short story writer, composed the story of â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† which takes place in Salem. AllRead MoreYoung Goodman Brown Symbolism Essay1205 Words   |  5 PagesYoung Goodman Brown is a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Written in 1835, the story deals with a late night meeting between a man and the Devil. On the surface this is all the story is, but if one looks closer one would find the story to be littered with symbolic images. Brown has been married to his wife aptly named Faith, for only three months. Three months is a very short time and this can symbolize that he lacks an attachment to faith. He is willing to stray from his own wife to go on hisRead More Symbolism in ?Young Goodman Brown? Essay477 Words   |  2 Pages â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† by Nathanial Hawthorne, is the story of one man’s journey to find himself. In it, Hawthorne uses many elements as symbols to add significance throughout the chronicle. The author does a good job of portraying some of the people and objects with symbols and allows the story to become more developed. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Nathaniel Hawthorne uses many people as symbols throughout quot;Young Goodman Brown,quot; but the roles that are most symbolic are those of GoodmanRead More Symbolism in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay examples2488 Words   |  10 Pages     Ã‚   Nathaniel Hawthorne’s tale, â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† is rich in symbolism, as this essay will amply illustrate. Hugo McPherson in â€Å"Hawthorne’s Use of Mythology† explains how the author’s â€Å"inner drama† may be expressed in his symbolism: The imaginative foundation of a writer’s work may well be an inner drama or ‘hidden life’ in which his deepest interests and conflicts are transformed into images or characters; and through the symbolic play of these creations, he comes to ‘know’ the meaningRead More Symbolism in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay example2781 Words   |  12 PagesIn Nathaniel Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown the use of symbols contributes to the development of the storys plot. Symbolism is used as a means to uncover the truth about the characters. The author, in an attempt to manifest the moral aspects of his society, uses many kinds of symbols to support his points. When analyzing an allegory like Young Goodman Brown, the reader must realize that the story is in its entirety, a symbol. Hawthorne, through his writing is trying to convey the contradictingRead MoreSymbols and Symbolism in Young Goodman Brown Essay1331 Words   |  6 Pageseternity. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† by Nathaniel Hawthorne, reveals a similar resemblance of the Biblical inherent evil among man, through a disturbing dream of a young Puritan man who journeys into evil and is forced to examine the nature of evil among the human race. The Wife of Goodman Brown symbolizes the love that a wife has for her beloved husband but also the love, faith and devotion that her husband Goodman Brown has in his Christian God. An example of this symbolism is when Goodman Brown saysRead MoreThe Use of Symbolism in Young Goodman Brown Essay742 Words   |  3 Pagesâ€Å"The Use of Symbolism in Young Goodman Brown† â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1835, is a short story about a man named young Goodman Brown who leaves his wife, Faith, to go on an errand into the woods with the devil. Faith begs Goodman Brown to not leave her alone, but he chooses to go anyways. This short story shows many signs of symbolism, such as the forest, the devil, the staff, the pink ribbons, Faith, sin, and guilt. These symbols help in understanding the story

Human Resource Management for BHP- Free Samples to Students

Question: Discuss about theHuman Resource Management for BHP Billiton in Australia. Answer: Human resource management (HRM) enhances and maximizes the performance of employees within the organisation of strategic objectives of the employer. Policies of the system are focused by human resources and associated management of the employees of the organisation. Promotion and compensation plays an important role to determine the efficiency of the HR structure of a company. It has been found that organizations having a dynamic HRM also have an excellent compensation and promotion schemes within the organisation. The HRM of BHP Billiton in Australia provides compensation around AU$ 273000 for senior executives, AU$ 250000 for executives, AU$ 194360 for senior directors, AU$ 153480 for directors, AU$ 100940 for managers, AU$ 80400 for supervisors and AU$ 50120 for the associates (Bhpbilliton.com 2017). Figure 1: VROOMs expectancy theory (Source: Inspired from L?z?roiu 2015) According to Vrooms expectancy theory, there is a link between behaviour and rewards. The expectancy of the employees is governed according to their training and job description as well as educational background and competency. The agency theory is also applicable as it focuses on the different goals and interest of the organisation stakeholder as well as compensation of the employees for alignment of interest and goals. The employees and employers being the two primary stakeholders of BHP Billiton, highlights that compensation of the employees is the agency cost and the employees always expect higher agency cost that the employer tries to minimize. Hence, the alignment between employee interest and employer interest is executed through behaviour oriented or outcome oriented payment through merit pay, profit sharing and commissioning system in BHP Billiton (Gupta 2014). Promotions are also prioritized as an important technique by HRM of BHP Billiton to maintain a healthy employee relationship as well as motivate them for better performance and enhance the employee productivity. Promotions and compensations also help the HRM to increase employee retention and promote a good organizational culture through increasing job satisfaction of the employees. The BHP Billiton has increased its revenues to around AU$ 30912 million with a total operating income of AU$ 6235 million. According to Kiatkawsin (2017), the total number of employees being around 65000 the retention has increased by approximately 87% with attractive promotion schemes. The HRM of BHP Billiton decided to increase promotion schemes as well as compensation to maximize their production level and hence increasing profits. HRM of BHP assumed that with financial reward, the employees would be motivated to increase their productivity level. BHP Billiton conducts feedback sessions with the employees to understand the satisfaction level of employees and their needs. The feedbacks obtained provide an insight regarding the expectancy of the employees. Further training sessions is conducted to understand competency level of employees and keeps a performance track. Wickramasinghe (2016) stated that if the performance of an employee is found to be above 50%, the employee is rewarded with compensation. Higher performance level leads to better promotion option for the employees within BHP Billiton. Moreover, the compensation is based on the expectancy of the employees that is determined considering employee educational background, competency and skill sets as well. Thus, it is seen that the primary reason for compensation and promotion within BHP Billiton is to promote employee retention, employee satisfaction, increase productivity and performance of the employees. Reference Bhpbilliton.com, 2017. BHP Billiton, Available at: https://www.bhpbilliton.com/ [Accessed 4 May 2017] Gupta, N. and Shaw, J.D., 2014. Employee compensation: The neglected area of HRM research.Human Resource Management Review,24(1), pp.1-4. Kiatkawsin, K. and Han, H., 2017. Young travelers' intention to behave pro-environmentally: Merging the value-belief-norm theory and the expectancy theory.Tourism Management,59(2), pp.76-88. L?z?roiu, G., 2015. Work Motivation and Organizational Behavior.Contemporary Readings in Law and Social Justice, 7(2), pp.66-75. Wickramasinghe, V. and Samaratunga, M., 2016. HRM practices and post-promotion managerial performance: Subordinates perspective. Evidence-based HRM: a Global Forum for Empirical Scholarship, 4(2), pp. 144-161.

Teaching Vocabulary free essay sample

There are many studies that reinforce the key role of vocabulary size on reading and writing skills, especially on native speakers. Loafer in an analysis of the vocabulary of Israeli students, established that a good vocabulary size was important for reading comprehension and for fluency in speech. Golden claimed that measures of vocabulary size -particularly the size of academic vocabulary- are important indicators of the ability of second language learners to achieve academic success. Anderson and Forebode found out that there was a high correlation between a good performance in a vocabulary test and reading comprehension. Different research studies have also concentrated on tracking the development of vocabulary knowledge f language learners from different perspectives. Within this trend, we can identify several main groups: those studies that have addressed vocabulary acquisition of young learners in their native language, and those that deal with foreign language development. Among vocabulary acquisition studies, some focus attention on the development of depth of vocabulary knowledge (Harmer, Carlisle, Maya Guajarati, Triggers, Baritones,). We will write a custom essay sample on Teaching Vocabulary or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Some other studies deal with how receptive vocabulary evolves with time and proficiency (Armor, Averred, Garcia Hoc, Smith,), and finally, some there studies address the issue of receptive vocabulary size at specific moments of development (Dolce, Danna, Chemistry, Hall, Golden, Nation, Read, Warning, Kibbles,). The object of our research is teaching vocabulary on the topic environment. The aim of the paper is to analyses various techniques on teaching vocabulary on the topic environment taking into consideration three main levels (elementary, intermediate and advanced) of teaching English as a foreign language.Most of the examples were taken from different books taking into consideration elementary, intermediate and advanced levels of teaching. Of course, the topic is quite extensive and one cannot say that all possible vocabulary teaching techniques are represented here equally, but the most prominent ones are given due attention in the present paper. Due to the restrictions of space some of the practical examples were not given for each of the levels but only for those they are mostly typical for. The essay consists of introduction, four parts, conclusion and bibliography.Part 1 deals with general considerations concerning what needs to be taught, receptive and productive vocabulary and the criteria for selecting vocabulary and vocabulary exercises. The questions of vocabulary items grouping and how many items to teach are viewed. Part 2 is devoted to the problems connected with presenting vocabulary. The learning. In Part 3 practicing vocabulary techniques, namely visual aids, lexical and speaking exercises and games are analyses. Part 4 focuses on different approaches to testing vocabulary and vocabulary assessment.The main task of the essay is to show on various examples how all the listed vocabulary teaching techniques work, which ones are more preferable and in what cases most suitable. Part 1 . General Considerations for Teaching Vocabulary Psychologists, linguists, and language teachers have been interested in vocabulary learning strategies for a long time. Numerous studies have been conducted comparing the retention effects of different vocabulary presentation strategies. In fact, the vocabulary field has been especially productive in the last two decades. Generally speaking, the chapter focuses on the area, of vocabulary learning strategies, the analysis of the vocabulary learning task, the in order to acquire the vocabulary off second language 1. 1. What needs to be taught When a person approaches a relatively challenging task, s/he adopts certain trainees to solve the problem. This problem-solving process is constrained by the learning context where the problem is being tackled. Language learning in general and vocabulary acquisition in particular are such problem-solving tasks at different levels of complexity.The strategies a learner uses and the effectiveness of these strategies very much depend on the learner him/herself (e. G. , attitudes, motivation, prior knowledge), the learning task at hand (e. G. , type, complexity, difficulty, and generality), and the learning environment (e. G. , the learning culture, the richness of input and output opportunities). Vocabulary is not a syllabus, I. E. , a list of words that teachers prepare for their learners to memorize and learn by heart. Memorizing may be good and useful as a temporary technique for tests, but not for learning a foreign language.Language student need to learn vocabulary of the target language in another way. If we are really to teach students what word mean and how they are used, we need to show them being used together in context. Words do not Just exist on their own; they live together and they depend upon each other. Therefore, caching vocabulary correctly is a very important element in language learning. Correct vocabulary instruction involves vocabulary selection, word knowledge and techniques. One way to see the overall task of vocabulary learning is through the distinction between knowing a word and using a word.In other words, the purpose of vocabulary learning should include both remembering words and the ability to use them automatically in a wide range of language contexts when the need arises (McCarthy). In fact, evidence suggests that the knowledge aspect (both breadth and PPTP) requires more conscious and explicit learning mechanisms whereas the skill aspect involves mostly implicit learning and memory (Ellis). Vocabulary learning strategies, therefore, should include strategies for using as well as knowing a word. Another way to view vocabulary learning is to see it as a process of related sub- tasks.When learners first encounter a new word, they might guess its meaning and usage from available clues. Some learners might proceed to look it up in the dictionary. Others might take down notes along the margins, between the lines, or on prepare vocabulary notebooks. Some learners will repeat the new word a number of to commit the word to memory. Some would even try to use the word actively. Each of these task stages demands anticompetitive Judgment, choice, and deployment of cognitive strategies for vocabulary learning. And each strategy a learner uses will determine too large extent how and how well a new word is learned..Paul Nation has shed light on the multi-faceted nature of the kinds of knowledge required in learning a word. Form written What does the word look like? Word parts What word parts are recognizable in this word? Meaningful and meaning What meaning does this word form signal? Concepts and referents What is included in this concept? Associations What other words does this make us think of? Use grammatical function In what patterns does the word occur? Collocations words or types of words occur with this one? Constraints of use (register, frequency) Where, when and how often would we expect to meet this word? . 2. Criteria for selecting vocabulary Size of vocabulary knowledge, either receptive or productive, is generally acknowledged to be incremental. Schmitt highlights that vocabulary is incremental in number of ways. First, as regards the incorporation of new words into the mental lexical store; second, concerning the different aspects of word knowledge gradually being acquired. The aspects are not acquired on a yes/no basis, but as Schmitt says, it may be better to consider the degree of re ceptive/productive control of the various word-knowledge aspects.A general principle of vocabulary selection is frequency. It is worth examining items of the vocabulary on frequency word-counts. One of the most widely known word-counts is the General Service List of English Words (compiled and edited by Dry Michael West). Its aim was to scientifically select and compile the 2,000 most commonly used words in English from a study of 5 million running words of written English. The list also took account of the frequency of different semantic values within those words possessing more than one meaning. The Threshold Level was prepared for the Council of Europe by J. An Eek and includes a lexicon of approximately 1,500 items. The Threshold Level attempted to define a minimum level of general ability and the authors suggest that two-thirds of the lexicon would be required for productive use. A third, and easily available word- mount is the Cambridge English Lexicon (compiled by R. Handmaids). Handmaids set out to define a comprehension lexicon that would be sufficient for students to pass the Cambridge First Certificate Examination. The result is a list of 4,500 words with over 8,000 semantic values. The contents of frequency counts should not be accepted uncritically.Their value must be Judged against the source of the data and criteria governing inclusion of the data. And even if we accept the legitimacy of the items included, there will still be occasions when usefulness is not determined by frequency. Word-counts, being based on the utterances of native speakers, will obviously reflect the cultural interests of these speakers. Such interests may not be shared by Al learners, who may wish to express ideas and experiences quite outside those of native speaker. Landscape and environment are examples of this. Coverage very specific meaning.The criteria of need and level presuppose that students who are required to read technical reports in English in their native country will have different lexical needs to those learners who need English for travel purposes. Equally obvious is that elementary students will recognize limitations in their election of lexis that will not be true of advanced learners. As Paul Nation notes A good vocabulary exercise focuses on useful words, preferably high frequency words that have already been met before; focuses on a useful aspect of learning burden. It has a useful learning goal; gets learners to meet or use the word in ways that establish new mental connections for the word, it sets up useful learning conditions involving generative use; involves the learners in actively searching for and evaluating the target words in the exercise; does not bring related unknown or partly known words together, it avoids interference. 1. 3. Receptive and productive vocabulary It is not the main goal of this research project to offer a complete definition of what vocabulary is. Nevertheless the theoretical foundations behind this research study must be mentioned to foster understanding.Thus, in this particular section we shall explain how the concept of vocabulary has been understood for the elaboration of this research and the concrete aspects of this construct that have been taken into account and measured. The vocabulary construct is most often understood as being made up of several sublanguages or abilities. This perspective on vocabulary learning helps the researcher to focus on particular aspects in order to measure and test each one of them. The most widely spread distinction is that of receptive and productive vocabulary; both concepts are very often used with those of passive and active vocabulary.Receptive vocabulary is defined by Nation as carrying the idea that we receive language input from others through listening or reading and try to comprehend it. In other words, receptive vocabulary would involve reading or listening to a word and retrieving its meaning. On the contrary, productive scapulars conveys the idea of a learner wanting to express something through speaking or writing, retrieving the word and producing its appropriate spoken or written form. The fact that this distinction is a widely accepted one does not mean that it is free from controversy.In fact there are many researchers that argue that this distinction should not be understood as one with clear boundaries, as their definition may suggest, but as a continuum within the students interlingua. Near prefers to refer to these two concepts as passive and active vocabulary and as being the result of different types of associations between words. Following this view, active vocabulary may be activated by other words as it has many different connections with other words while passive vocabulary can only be activated by external stimuli, namely by hearing or seeing their forms.This associations view of vocabulary has been criticized because vocabulary knowledge is not always associational driven but meaning driven. In other words, a foreign language learner may be able to name an object in the second language when he/she sees it and this does not have to favor associations with other second or first words. Others, such as Fearer, Hussars, Phillips or Palmer, prefer to interpret this distinction between knowledge. Nation offers a wider vision of the concept and explains that the terms receptive and productive apply to a variety of kinds of language knowledge and use.A passive voc abulary includes the words stored in verbal memory that people partially understand, but not well enough for active use. These are words that people meet less often and they may be low frequency words in the language as a whole. In other words, activating them takes longer and it demands greater stimulus than most textual contexts provide. Words stop being passive if people are regularly contracting relations that activate them, since this lowers the amount of stimulus needed to put them to use. A facility in using the words develops.Again constraints of another kind in the existentialistic context may also restrict the active use of some words. This can happen even when words are available for active use in principle, such as cultural taboo words that most people know but rarely use outside certain settings. This can be compared with active vocabulary, which are words that learners understand and use in speaking or writing. The active and passive vocabulary of a learner changes constantly. They start using words, try new meanings, forget words, abandon words that have no use, revise words, etc.This distinction becomes a bit blurred, however, when we consider what knowing a word means and when we consider the way students seem to acquire their store of words. It is true that students know some words better than others, but it has not been demonstrated that these are necessarily the words which teachers have taught them, especially at higher levels. They might be words that are often used in the classroom or words hat have appeared in the reading texts which students have been exposed to.If we have any belief in language acquisition theories it is clear that many words which students know do come through that route rather than through learning. Other words may be those that students have looked up because they wanted to use them. At beginner and elementary levels it certainly seems a good idea to provide sets or vocabulary which students can learn. Most of these early words will be constantly practiced and so can be considered as active. But at intermediate levels and above the situation is rather more complicated.We can assume that students have a store of words but it would be difficult to say which are active and which are passive. A word that has been active through constant use may slip back into the passive store if it is not used. A word that students have in their passive store may suddenly become active if the situation or the context provokes its use. In other words, the status of a vocabulary item does not seem to be a permanent state of affairs. . For example, advanced learners often have an extremely large passive vocabulary but a considerably smaller active one. 1. 4. Grouping of items of vocabularySince vocabulary consists of a series of interrelating systems and is not Just a random collection of items, it is necessary to present items to a student in a systematized manner. Semantic fields are made up of sets of semantically similar items. These fields may range from very broad categories to smaller areas, and the same item may occur in different fields. Semantic fields form useful building blocks and can be revised and expanded as students progress; they often provide a clear context for practice as well. The groupings below consists so different types of semantic fields as well as phonological and grammatical sets.Clearly, some groupings are more most common and useful groupings found in course books e. G. Types of environmental pollution, disasters. Items similar in meaning are those which are easily confused. This type of group needs to be handled extremely carefully; the items need to be conceptualized properly, and it is vital to highlight to students the differences between items as clearly as possible. Items which form pairs are synonyms, contrasts and opposites. Conceptualization is essential here. Items along a scale or cline illustrate differences of degree. Items within word families (derivatives).It is often possible to group items of vocabulary to illustrate the principles of word building, the meanings of prefixes and suffixes and the related phonological difficulties. Items forming a set of idioms can form coherent groups e. G. Under the weather, on top of the world. However, this grouping is fairly restricted in practice and it is often easier to teach it as and when they arise. 1. 5. How many items to teach? We need to consider two questions in this section. First, the optimum vocabulary load for a single lesson, and second, the number of items that should be covered over the duration of the course.Researchers suggest an average of eight to twelve productive items as representing a reasonable input; the lower figure being more suitable for elementary students and the upper figure for more advanced students. The extent to which learners may fall short of the desired lexicon over the duration of the course, will depend on a number of factors. For learners in their own country much will depend on individual motivation , the priority given to the language course amongst other commitments, and any contact with the language they might have outside the classroom: through books, films, work or native speakers of English.In this context homework can play a very important role in vocabulary development. External factors are also be considered. The most important among them are the following ones: a) How similar in form is the target item to an equivalent in the learners own language? Cognates such as taxi, hotel, bar should only cause phonological problems and are thus useful to deal with early on when teaching beginners: they can give a learner a sense of satisfaction as well as allowing him to focus on a new phonological system.False cognates will demand considerable attention and effort on th e part of he student. Anything else which is completely removed from the learners own language will obviously more difficult to memories. B) How easy is it to illustrate the meaning? Concrete items which can be represented visually can be dealt with more economically than abstract items. Translation is often a useful shortcut, but sometimes there is no direct, clear translation, and as level of sophistication increase, dealing with meaning and form becomes a time-consuming activity. ) What is the students learning environment? Factors such as the intensiveness of the course, whether the students are studying Outside their language classrooms will have some bearing on the vocabulary load which they can handle. D) Learners who fail to adopt effective language learning strategies, or who have a poor memory for language items, or great difficulty with phonology, will probably be unable to absorb as many items as good learners. They learnt. Part 2. Presenting Vocabulary There are many approaches and techniques used in the presentation of new vocabulary items. We will now examine the most common ways in which meaning of new items is conveyed in a normal teaching situation. They are usually divided into woo major groups traditional techniques and student-centered learning. 2. 1 . Traditional techniques used in the presentation of new vocabulary items Although traditional approaches and techniques may sound pejorative, it is not intended to be; indeed, a teacher who was not able to make use of the following techniques might feel severely handicapped.Most of these are means which tend to be associated with a more teacher-centered approach and consequently the items taught through these means are usually selected by the teacher rather than the learner. 2. 1 . 1. Visual techniques Visuals are particularly useful for teaching concrete items of vocabulary. These include flashcards, photographs, blackboard drawings, wheelchairs and realize(objects themselves). Visuals are mostly used at elementary and intermediate levels. For example: elementary level intermediate level advanced level Miming and gestures are other ways of conveying meaning.When teaching an item such as flood or pollution, a teacher may build a situation to illustrate them, making use of the blackboard and gesture to reinforce the meaning. 2. 1. 2. Verbal techniques Use of illustrative situations This is more helpful when items become more abstract. It is especially helpful with idioms and collocations To ensure that learners understand, teachers often make use of more than one situation or context to check that learners have grasped the concept.Since idioms and collocations prevail at intermediate and advanced levels, this technique is not frequently used at the elementary level. For example Intermediate level At the elementary level it is usually used in the form of text with inserted pictures. For example Elementary level Use of synonymy and definition compromise and restrict the length and complexity of their explanations. It would, for example, be Justifiable at low levels to tell students that freezing means very cold. Secondly, it is commonly used with higher level students and subsequently qualified. Boiling, sweltering, roasting, for instance, means the same as hot, but are more informal. Translation is insufficient for presenting such items as, for example, greenhouse effect. It is advisable to provide a definition. The greenhouse effect is the problem off rise in temperature in the earths atmosphere. Definition alone is often inadequate as a means of conveying meaning, and conceptualized examples are nearly required to clarify the limits of the item. This technique is best applied at the intermediate and advanced level.For example, here is a small text about the weather. You can find definitions for each word in bold type below it. 3. Contrasts and opposites This is a technique which students themselves use, often asking Whats the opposite 4. Scales Once students have learnt two contrasting or related gradable items, this can be a useful way of revising and feeding in new items. If students know hot and cold, for example, a blackboard thermometer can be a framework for feeding in warm, cool, freezing, boiling.There are many different words referring to features of the environment. Here are some arranged on small to large scales. Brook stream river hillock hill mountain cove bay gulf copse wood forest puddle pond lake footpath lane road 5. Examples of the type To illustrate the meaning of subordinates such as birds, fish, rodents, reptiles , it is a common procedure to exemplify them. For example, rat, mouse, squirrel, hamster are rodents. For example Translation is a quick and easy way to present the meaning of words but it is not without problems. In the first place, translation may not always convey the exact sense of an item, in the second place it may make it a bit too easy for students by discouraging them from interacting with the words. Person-dependent Vocabulary Learning Strategies From guessing at the first encounter, to possible dictionary use and note taking, to rehearsal, encoding, and contextual activation, vocabulary learning in real life situations is a dynamic process involving anticompetitive choices and cognitive implementation of a whole spectrum of strategies.Whether and how a learner evaluates the task requirement and whether and how a cognitive strategy is oriented process view of vocabulary acquisition that looks at naturally occurring vocabulary learning strategies as they relate to individual differences as well as the vocabulary learning task is beginning to form a new trend. Good learners, poor learners, and their vocabulary strategies The Named (1989) study referred to earlier was amongst the first to elicit vocabulary strategies learners spontaneously employ.The good learners were found to be more aware of what they could learn about new words, paid more attention to collocation and spelling, and were more conscious of contextual learning. By contrast, the underachieving learners refused to use the dictionary and almost always ignored unknown words. They were generally characterized by their apparent passiveness in learning. They also took each word as a discrete item unrelated to previously learned words.Another study that explored students ability level and their guessing strategies is Stouten-van Preparer (1989). It was found that, compared to their strong counterparts, weak pupils tended to focus on the problem word and ignore the context; their knowledge of the world was more restricted; they had difficulty integrating knowledge from different sources; they caked mother tongue vocabulary knowledge, and they had difficulty generalizing from words they had already learned to slightly different new words.